Annealing - the process used to soften silver by heating to a dull red glow and quenching in water

Blowpipe - a tube by which a current of air is driven into a flame to intensify and concentrate the heat, used to blow the flame onto the solder

Cold chisel - a hardened steel tool (often made of a scrap of steel) with a 1/2-inch to 3/4-inch straight cutting edge. Because saws were not readily available until the 1900's all cutting on early work was done with a chisel

Conchas - (named after the Spanish word for shell) are round or oval disks of silver. Conchas, also called conchos, are used in groups to decorate belts.

Die - a stamp of similar patterns, one a positive and one a negative (male and female) used to stamp decorations on metal (and leather)

Engraving - carving into a surface such as metal; cutting scratch engraving is decoration on metal by scratching with a needle or steel awl rocker engraving is decoration applied to metal by rocking a very short bladed chisel from corner to corner while at the same time pushing it forward cold-chisel work is some of the earliest decorative stamping, done only with a old chisel

File work - is decoration on silver work, usually in the form of notches and grooves but also including filing away material to leave areas in high relief.

Flux - a chemical (usually borax) used to keep silver from oxidizing during soldering

Forge - the special fireplace, hearth or furnace in which metal is heated before shaping (the workshop of a metal worker)

Hand wrought - shaped by hammering or beating by hand

Melting point - temperature at which a solid substance melts or fuses

Repousse - is raising the surface of the metal by placing the blank sheet of annealed silver face down on a piece of wood and hammering out the design from the reverse side and then refining the design on the front by further hammering and file work

Rocker-engraving - decoration applied to metal by rocking a very short bladed chisel from corner to corner while at the same time pushing it forward

Scratch engraving - is decoration on metal by scratching with a needle or steel awl

Silver casting - is another completely different technique for working silver used by the Navajo. Sandstone was first used to make molds. Tufa stone, a stone of compacted volcanic ash, was later used for casting molds.

Soldering - is the process of uniting the surfaces of metals with solder (solder: any of various alloys fused and applied to the joint between metal objects to unite them without heating the objects to the melting point) Soldering is by far the most difficult technique to master in making jewelry. Think about what the early Navajo silversmith had to go through to solder: he had to make his own solder by combining silver filings with brass filings from old pans or cartridge cases. This mixture was then placed at the joint to be soldered, together with some flux (a chemical used to keep silver from oxidizing during soldering), usually borax. The prepared pieces were placed in the coals of the forge and the whole works brought to a red glow, just below the melting point of the material. If the solder needed additional heat, the smith used a blowpipe with which he blew the flame onto the solder. In the 1900s better solder, fluxes and torches were introduced.

Sprue - an opening through which molten metal is poured into a mold

Stamping - is working silver with a tool with a design on the end that is used to make an imprint of its pattern on metal work (also used in leather)

Wrought silver - shaped by hammering or beating

VOCABULARY

adornment - the act of decorating or adding beauty to; making pleasing or more attractive

aesthetics - the science which deals with the beautiful

Anasazi - the prehistoric Indians who inhabited the Four Corners area who are thought to be the ancestors of the Pueblo peoples

appreciate - to be grateful for, to place a high estimate on something, to raise in value or price, especially over time, to exercise wise judgment, delicate perception and keen insight in realizing the worth of something. synonyms: value, prize, esteem, treasure, cherish

. archaeologist - one who pursues the scientific study of the life and cultures of ancient peoples

artifact - an object made or modified by man; in archaeology an object made by early man

artisan - a person skilled in an art or craft

arid - without moisture, extremely dry

authentic - genuine, not false or copied

axis (axes pl.) - a central line bisecting a body or form and in relation to which symmetry is determined

axiality - of, pertaining to or like an axis

balance - a state of stability; a state of harmony; a state of equilibrium

barter - to trade by exchanging one commodity for another

cardinal orientation - the ability to locate oneself in one's environment with reference to the four chief directions of the compass: north, south, east and west;

centrality - a central position; of or forming the center

ceremonial - pertaining to or characterized by ceremony; formal; ritual

concha - belt made by the Navajo consisting of conchas (round or oval disks of silver) The word 'concha' ('conchas') is interchangeable with 'concho,' ('conchos'), both referring to the disks as well as the belts

conquistadores - the 16th century Spanish conquerors in the Americas

convert - (v.t.) to cause to acquire different beliefs, especially ones believed to be better

coral - the hard, calcareous skeleton of tiny animals called polyps

craft - (n.) handicraft; (v.t.) to make or manufacture an object with skill and careful attention to detail

culture - a term used by social scientists for a peoples whole way of life, including arts, beliefs, customs, inventions, language, technology and traditions

design - to plan and fashion the form and structure of an object or work of art

disparate - dissimilar, unlike

Dine - means "the People" in the Navajo language

duality - a dual state or quality, composed or consisting of twofold or double character or nature

El Camino Real - the "Royal Road" or "King's Highway" was the first road constructed after the arrival of the Spanish in the 1600's along the Rio Grande from northern Mexico to Santa Fe

emboss - to decorate with raised ornament; to raise a design on a blank with dies of similar pattern, one a negative of the other

fetish - an object regarded as having special powers, eliciting unquestionable reverence and respect

fickle - casually changeable

first-phase - the earliest period of silver making, also called the classic style of Southwest Indian jewelry

flint - a hard kind of stone; a form of silica

focus - a central point; focal point

fortification - a fort; a defensive building constructed for the purpose of strengthening a position

guild - an organization of persons in the same trade organized to maintain standards and to protect the interests of its members

harmony - in art: a consistent, orderly or pleasing arrangement of parts.
in music: the simultaneous combination of tones, esp. when blended into chords pleasing to the ear

headstall - bridle

hogan - the traditional Navajo dwelling made of 5 long poles interlocked at the top and plastered with mud and straw

hozho - the central principle of Navajo religion, philosophy and aesthetics, roughly translated as "beauty"

indigenous - native; originating in and characterizing a particular region or country

jacla - short strands of turquoise that were originally worn as ear pendants, today are hung on necklaces as a center pendant

ketoh - bow guard worn on the wrist to prevent the bow string from hitting the wrist when an arrow is shot

kiva - a large chamber, often wholly or partially undergroundin a Pueblo Indian village used for religious ceremonies and other purposes

matrix - foreign material from the "mother rock" and other foreign minerals and materials the become incorporated in turquoise deposits at an early stage

naja - meaning "crescent" in Navajo is the curved, open pendant at the lower center of a squash blossom necklace

Navajo - [Navajos; Navajo (collectively) pl.] Native Americans who live today primarily in the regions of northern Arizona, overlapping into northwest New Mexico

Neolothic - pertaining to the final stage of the Stone Age

obsidian - a volcanic glass similar in composition to granite, usually dark but transparent in thin pieces

order - a system of arrangement, classification or coordination of things by sequence pattern - an arrangement or repetition of lines or shapes that form a design

pawn - to deposit as security, as for money borrowed

philosophy - a study of human morals, character and behavior

plaza - an open square or market place in a city or town for use by the public

pow wow - a ceremony and meeting among North American Indians, including trading, dancing and feasting

prehistoric - of or pertaining to a period of the history of man before recorded events, known mainly through archaeological research

proportion - the comparative relation between things; any part or portion in relation to the whole

proximity - nearness in place, time, order, occurrence or relation

Pueblo - [adjective] of the Pueblo Indians; Native Americans who live today primarily in northern New Mexico in pueblo dwellings

pueblo - the name given by the Spanish to Indian towns of the Southwest composed of multistoried, flat-roofed adjacent buildings constructed of adobe

reconquest - to conquer again

redeem - to buy or pay off

religion - belief in a divine or superhuman power or powers to be obeyed and worshipped as the creator(s) and ruler(s) of the universe

rosette - an ornament, usually circular, having petals and leaves radiating symmetrically from the center

silversmith - one who makes or repairs silver articles

sipapu - the hole in the kiva floor through which contact is made with the spiritual beings who inhabit the underworlds

spiritual - of or pertaining to the spirit or its concerns as distinguished from bodily or worldly existence or its concerns

subjugation - to cause to become subservient; to subdue

symbol - a picture that represents an idea

symbolism - the practice of representing things by symbols or of investing things with a symbolic meaning

symmetry - the correspondence in size, form, and arrangement of parts on opposite sides of a plane, line or point

talisman - an object supposed to possess magical charms

traditional - of or pertaining to the handing down of statements, beliefs, legends, customs, etc. from generation to generation esp. by word of mouth or by practice

tribute - money paid regularly by one ruler or nation to another as acknowledgement of subjugation, for protection from invasion, etc.

turquoise - a mineral made of cuprous aluminum phosphate